Governing Shadow Education:
Private Tutoring, Educational Inequality, and Policy Limitations in South Korea
Abstract
Private supplementary tutoring, including the widespread use of hagwons, has become deeply embedded in South Korea’s education system. Over several decades, the government has tried several approaches. These include regulation, publicly supported alternatives, and admissions reform. Yet, private education remains widespread and financially burdensome. Total expenditure reached 29.2 trillion Korean won (KRW) in 2024 before declining to 27.5 trillion KRW in 2025, while participation fell from 80.0 percent to 75.7 percent. This article examines why private supplementary tutoring remains strongly institutionalized despite sustained policy intervention. The article draws on government reports, national statistics, and academic research. It argues that policy has often regulated private education without sufficiently addressing the conditions that sustain household demand. These include competitive admissions, unequal educational opportunities, and families’ efforts to protect their children’s future prospects. The article concludes that shadow education should be understood as an interdependent institution shaped by competitive pressures and inequalities of formal education. Sustainable reform therefore requires coordination among education policy, family support, and efforts to reduce broader inequality.
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